General Chemistry

1. Title page - title of the project must be brief, simple and catchy

2. Statement of problems/objectives - the nature & scope of the problem should be presented with clarity. Two types of objectives may stated:

i. General Objective - this is related to the problem as given in the early part of the section

ii. Specific Objective - this states the purpose of each experiment conducted.

3. Methodology - provides enough details so that a competent worker can repeat the experiments

i. Materials/Equipment - the exact technical specifications, quantities and source of method of preparation for all materials used should be given. Specifically, built equipment used in the study must be described and the description accompanied by a picture

ii. Treatment/General Procedure - the manner & sequence by which each experiment or set of observations were done & how measurements were obtained should be described in detail. Avoid using the "recipe style" when stating the step-by-step procedure. Use the narrative form in the past tense.

4. Results and discussion - this may be divided into sub-sections describing each set of experiment or observations.

i. Findings - the data maybe presented in full & discussed descriptively in the test or these maybe summarized in tables, pictures & graphs. The statistical test used to determine the possible significance of the finding should be described. Tables, pictures & graphs should make the presentation of the data more meaningful.

ii. Analysis of Data - the interpretation of the findings are discussed & the significant features shown in the tables, figures or graphs are pointed out.

5. Conclusions - the general truth implied or illustrated by the results should be clearly stated. The evidence based on the results should be summarized for each statement.

6. Recommendations - consists of suggestions on future actions such as a new direction of research or further experiments to be performed, practices that might be adapted or discard in order to attain certain goals or objectives.

7. Bibliography - a list of the references used in guiding the research work and writing and paper.

Part B: Measurement Used in Chemistry

A.1 The Measurement of Mass, Length, and Volume

A.2 Conversion of Units by the Factor Label Method

A.3 Measurement of Temperature

Objectives: At the end of the session you will be able to:

A. List several fundamental and derived units of measurement in the metric (SI) system.

B. Interconvert measurements by the factor-label method.

C. Identify several key points on the Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin Temperature Scales.

A.1 The Measurement of Mass, Length, and Volume

A.1.1 The English System of Measurements

Length		Area
12 inches	= 1 foot	144 square inches	= 1 square foot
3 feet	= 1 yard	9 square feet	= 1 square yard
220 yards	= 1 furlong	4,840 square yards	= 1 acre
8 furlongs	= 1 mile	640 acres	= 1 square mile
5,280 feet	= 1 mile	1 square mile	= 1 section
1,760 yards	= 1 mile	36 sections	= 1 township
Volume		Capacity (Dry)
1,728 cubic inches	= 1 cubic foot	16 fluid ounces	= 1 pint
27 cubic feet	= 1 cubic yard	2 pints	= 1 quart
Mass		8 quarts	= 1 peck
437.5 grains	= 1 ounce	4 pecks	= 1 bushel
16 ounces	= 1 pound	Capacity (Liquid)
14 pounds	= 1 stone	4 gills	= 1 pint
100 pounds	= 1 hundredweight	2 pints	= 1 quart
20 hundredweights	= 1 ton	4 quarts	= 1 gallon
Apothecaries' Measures		Troy Weights
60 minims	= 1 fluid dram	24 grains	= 1 pennyweight
8 fluid drams	= 1 fluid ounce	20 pennyweights	= 1 ounce
16 fluid ounces	= 1 pint

A.1.2 The Metric System of Measurements

The metric system is a system of measuring. It has three basic units:

m the meter for length

kg The kilogram for mass

s the second for time

With those three simple measurements
we can measure nearly everything in the world!

Examples…..

But what if we want to talk about really big or really small things?

Answer: we can use Metric Number Prefixes

like "kilo" (a thousand)
and "milli" (one thousandth)
and so on

Example: something that is 1,000 meters is a "kilometer"

Something that is one thousandth of a second is a "millisecond"

In fact the kilogram already uses this method, because it is a thousand grams, a kilogram.

So one thousandth (1/1000) of a kilogram is simply a "gram"

Here is a quick summary of the special prefixes:

Large Numbers

Name	deca	hecto	kilo	mega	giga	tera	peta	exa	zetta	yotta
Symbol	da	h	k	M	G	T	P	E	Z	Y
Factor	10¹	10²	10³	10⁶	10⁹	10¹²	10¹⁵	10¹⁸	10²¹	10²⁴

Example A million liters would be called a megaliter and abbreviated ML

Small Numbers

Name	deci	centi	milli	micro	nano	pico	femto	atto	zepto	yocto
Symbol	d	c	m	µ	n	p	f	a	z	y
Factor	10^-1	10^-2	10^-3	10^-6	10^-9	10^-12	10^-15	10^-18	10^-21	10^-24

Example A thousandth of a second would be called a millisecond and abbreviated ms

Making Other Units

You can also combine the meter, kilogram and second to make new Units of Measurement!

Example: Speed

Speed is how far something moves over a period of time

So it can be measured in meters per second

It means: How many meters does something travel in one second

You could write it as meters/second, or simply m/s

Here are a few common units that are based on the meter, kilogram and second:

Area

Square Meter

Area is length by length, so the basic unit of area is a square that is 1 meter on each side.

The Unit is meters × meters, which is written m² (square meters).

Volume:

Cubic Meter

Volume is length by length by length, so the basic unit of volume is a cube that is 1 meter on each side.

The Unit is meters × meters × meters, which is written
m³ (cubic meters).

Liter (Litre in UK)

So, a cube that is 1 meter on each side is a cubic meter (m³) ...

... and that is also equal to 1,000 liters.

1 m³ = 1,000 Liters

Liter is abbreviated L (some people use lowercase l, but that looks too much like 1).

So a liter is actually one-thousandth of a cubic meter.

1 Liter = ¹/₁₀₀₀ m³

Another way of thinking about a liter is:

A box that is 0.1 meters (10 cm) on each side,
One square meter that is millimeter thick.

Time

Hour

An hour is 60 minutes, and a minute is 60 seconds, so an hour is:

60 × 60 = 3,600 seconds

Day

A day is 24 hours so:

1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86,400 second

Speed

Speed in meters per second (m/s)

This is a combination of two units (meters and seconds) to make a new one (m/s).

If something is traveling at 1 m/s it moves 1 meter every second.

Speed in kilometers per hour (km/h)

A bit more complicated, but a kilometer has 1,000 meters, and an hour has 3,600 seconds, so a kilometer per hour is:

1000 / 3600 = 1/3.6 = 0.277... m/s

How did I know to make it 1000/3600, and not 3600/1000 (the other way around)? Read how to Safely Convert From One Unit to Another.

Acceleration

Acceleration is how fast Speed changes.

If something accelerated from a Speed of 5 m/s (5 meter per second) to 6 m/s (6 meters per second)in just one second, it has accelerated by 1 meter per second per second!

That is two lots of "per second" and is written m/s²:

Force

Force is usually measured in the Unit of Newtons, an important measurement in Physics and Engineering.

But a Newton is actually 1 kg · m / s² (one kilogram-meter per second-squared).

So force is actually based on the meter, kilogram and second.

One way of looking at this is how much force it takes to make 1 kg accelerate at 1 m/s².

But even if you don't fully understand this, it shows you that force is a combination of the three basic units.

SI

The original Metric System was first developed in France back in 1670.

The modern version, (since 1960) is correctly called "International System of Units" or "SI" (from the French "Système International").

So you should really call it "SI", but mostly people just call it "Metric".

A.3 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Measuring temperatures of -10 to 150° C can be accomplished quite easily by means of an ordinary laboratory thermometer. However, measuring temperatures in the range of liquid nitrogen can prove to be very difficult with an ordinary thermometer. Thermocouple thermometers however, are fairly accurate over a wide range of temperatures. A thermocouple is an electrical junction between two dissimilar metals. This junction produces a small voltage at different temperatures.By calibrating the voltage with known temperatures, an accurate thermocouple thermometer can be made. Commercial thermocouples of various types are usually already calibrated and are readily available.
When working with very low temperatures it is inconvenient to work with the Celsius or Fahrenheit scales because of their inherent negative numbers. The K scale,with 0 K representing the temperature where a substance has zero heat energy, is a more appropriate temperature scale to use. This scale is very convenient for measuring the very low temperatures of liquid nitrogen. On this scale liquid nitrogen would have a temperature of 77 K.
The three main temperature scales used for measuring temperature are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is used for most scientific work because it is proportional to the kinetic energy in a substance. The following formulas may be used to convert from one temperature scale to another.

Formulas:

 Degrees Fahrenheit = (9/5 * Celsius) + 32

 Degrees Celsius = 5/9(Degrees Fahrenheit - 32)

 Degrees Kelvin = Degrees Celsius + 273

Common Temperature Reference Points:

                                                        Fahrenheit       Celsius         Kelvin

Absolute Zero                                       -460           -273                 0

Liquid Helium (boiling)                      -452.1         -268.8             4.2

Liquid nitrogen (boiling                       -321            -196              77

Water (freezing)                                     32                0                   273

Water (boiling)                                      212             100                    373